At the time of the outbreak of planet War I, the substance of returning Jews to Palestine and the Zionist movement was already a crucial part of global politics.
However, the name Palestine itself began to appear more frequently only after planet War I and after the establishment of a British kind A mandate at the San Remo Conference in 1923. At that time there was a dispute over the name itself: the arabian side regarded Palestine as part of the large Syria, Zionists promoted the name Israel. Today's Palestine was a part of Syria for most of history, before Turkish regulation for almost 900 years with interruptions in time for Jerusalem's Kingdom there were Arabs, even before the Romans. A better documented judaic regulation took place for about 80 years in the I and II centuries B.C.E. after the Maccabee uprising against the Seleucid governments. respective 100 years before the Babylonians and Persians invaded, there were tribal judaic states there.
Herzl and Zionism
The thought of the return of modern Jews to Palestine began to appear in the first half of the 19th century. A proposal for her redemption from Turkish hands and a gift However, the Jews were then rejected by the British government. Her advocates on the 1 hand were read in the Old Testament by Anglo-Saxon politicians and enthusiasts, on the another hand among themselves Jews were primarily east European Jews, alleged Ashkenazi Jews, surviving in ghettos where all area of life was strictly subject to theocratic or totalitarian control by local councils of elders (kahals). The symbolic founding minute of the Zionist movement was the publication in February 1896 of the brochure “Jewish State” by a judaic writer Teodor Herzl. A year later, the first Zionist legislature was held in Basel, attended by about 200 delegates from 17 countries. For the following years, Herzl conducted an highly intensive diplomatic activity for his idea. He had already reached the highest bidders in the European powers, and he besides met with the large vizier of that time, offering financial assistance to Turkey in exchange for approval to settle the Jews in Palestine. However, all of these efforts have failed, and the only real offer he received during this period was the British Government's proposal that Jews wishing to have their own state settle in Uganda. Herzl felt that an offer should be accepted, but most Jews from Central and east Europe decidedly rejected specified a proposal. Shortly thereafter, broken by defeat, Herzl died in 1904. However, the Zionist movement has permanently anchored itself in diplomatic salons towards its end of Europe Belle Epoque.
One of the leaders of the movement was a judaic chemist and inventor Chaim Weizmann, the later first president of the State of Israel, who had already met with the key players in the decisions concerning planet War I Palestine with British policies: David Lloyd George, And above all, Lord Arthur James Balfour. He besides convinced any of the judaic financiers in western Europe. He besides took care of influence in the media, and the body which peculiarly marked itself in the field of promoting the uprising of the judaic state in Palestine became a large-scale liberal – progressive Manchester Guardian – predecessor of the Guardian of today. At the same time, the judaic settlement in present-day Palestine began as early as the mid-19th century. By the time Herzl died, it had reached over 20,000 people. Then the process picked up the pace and the detonation The first planet War settled in Palestine another 35 1000 Jews, mainly from Western (Polish) Tsaric Russia, but besides from Yemen. Financial support for settlers was primarily funds provided by Rothschild Foundations and created in 1899 by the judaic Trust (bank) Colonial. The first wave was mainly motivated religiously, but the others, which began at the end of the 19th and early 20th century, were already influenced by modern ideologies. At that time, the first legendary kibbuces inspired by ideas of both Zionism and communism, although their founders came from families raised in conventional communities, where the component shaping everyday life and worldview was the Talmud. By the outbreak of planet War I there were respective tens of thousands of them, of which 40 1000 inactive had Russian passports. The first organization of armed judaic same - defence was besides established.
With the outbreak of the war, Weizmann intensified his efforts. He predicted that the Ottoman Empire, which then ruled the Arabian Peninsula and the territory of present - day Palestine, would lose this land to the victorious Ententa. There is simply a hypothesis that the specified passage through the British into the Sinai offensive and the attack of the Turks from this side was inspired by Zionists. In addition to the shift of considerable force to the mediate East, the British besides decided to engage in diversionary actions based on the usage of Turkish yokes of arabian forces. For this to happen, on the 1 hand, agents were sent there, the most celebrated of whom was a British officer Thomas Edward Lawrence known more broadly as Lawrence of Arabia, who described his adventures in the celebrated book "Seven Pillars of Wisdom". On the another hand, in 1915. Sir Henry McMahon The advanced British Commissioner in Egypt has been in correspondence with Sheriff Mecca and the later founder of the Hashemite dynasty (she is inactive in Jordan today) Hussein bin Ali al Hashimi. In July 1915, Hussajn asked Mc Mahon to recognise “the independency of arabian countries, in the north bounded by Adana and Mersina up to latitude 37 degrees BC. To the east through the borders of Persia to the Persian Gulf, to the south through the Indian Ocean excluding Aden and to the west through the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to Mersina (today's port of Mersin in the south of Turkey).
In response, Mc Mahon wrote: “I am authorized on behalf of the British Government to supply the following assurances: Britain is willing to recognise and support arabian independency within the limits proposed by the Sheriff.” However, he had previously made the following remark in the introduction: “However, it cannot be agreed that the Mersina and Alexandretta districts, as are the parts of Syria located west of Damascus, Homy, Homs and Aleppo districts, are purely Arab. These regions should stay outside the current borders. With the modifications mentioned and without prejudice to our existing commitments to arabian leaders, we accept these limits to the degree that Britain is free to act without compromising the interests of its ally – France".
There is no mention of Jews here, but only a mention to the negotiations already under way with France on the distribution of influences in the region which resulted in the Sykes-Picot agreement concluded the following year and taking into account French influences in Lebanon. Under no circumstances is there in these promises to exclude the area of present Palestine from the Arabs. Meanwhile, Weizmann's intense efforts led to the creation of the celebrated Balfour Declaration. It was a letter serving as the abroad Minister of the Government of JKM A. J. Balfour of November 2, 1917 to Lord Walter Rothschild, which read:
"The government of JKM looks kindly at the establishment of a seat in Palestine for the judaic people and will do everything in its power to facilitate this purpose. At the same time, it should be clear that nothing can be done that violates the civilian and spiritual rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political position enjoyed by Jews in any another country." On 9 December 1917, sent to the Egyptian front – Palestinian general Allenby won Jerusalem after a fast campaign, and on 30 October 1918 the Ottoman Empire capitulated.
Geopolitical maneuvers
While the agreements with France were followed by the establishment of a French mandate covering today's Syria and Lebanon, it was much more hard to meet conflicting promises given to Arabs and Zionists. The thought of kind A mandates was to decision distant from the colonial strategy and prepare mandate territories to make the regulation of local peoples and peoples. For any time, 1 of the mediate East mandates was besides considered, but with president Wilson's departure and the resignation from the League of Nations, it withdrew from this initiative. In 1919 the Americans inactive sent a commission to Palestine to analyse the situation in Palestine. Her study named King's study – Crane from the names of his authors was highly critical of British politics and Balfour's declaration. The authors stated: "Muslim and Christian communities are practically unanimous in opposition to Zionism, they frequently express it violently".
Later, the arabian side repeatedly raised a contradiction of British policy with Wilson's 14-point programme, of which 12 in the arabian section read: “Other (except Turks – O.S.) nationalities that now live under Ottoman regulation should have safety of existence guaranteed and should absolutely not be hindered by self-development.” Even before the authoritative creation of the mandate, there was a riot of the arabian population, which resulted in the British separating areas east of Jordan (today Jordan) from the originally planned territory. Another document, which was utilized as an argument in later disputes, was the agreement signed in 1919 between Weizmann and the boy of Sheriff Hussein Fajsal, in which the second agreed to support the judaic settlement in Palestine, but under many conditions, and besides subject to the fact that the arrangement is only applicable if the Arabs receive an independent state. The second Arabs considered it unfulfilled after the disclosure of the Sykes-Picot agreement and the creation of mandates.
The arabian side so rejected the existence of mandates from the outset. The French mandate in Syria was ended as a consequence of the anti-French uprising and the establishment of an independent Syria in 1936 A fewer years later an independent Lebanon was created during planet War II, in which a large Christian community of Maronites was inhabited.
The arabian riots against the establishment of a mandate in Palestine and judaic settlement continued from the first years after the end of planet War I. Immediately after the war, Israel’s same - defence forces of Hagan besides arose. The League of Nations archives let very closely to follow the arguments of the 3 essential sides of the conflict. The British side was aware from the beginning of its engagement in conflicting promises. Moreover, a large part of the British elite felt that promises made to Arabs by McMahon had been broken. In June 1922, the home of Lords stated by 2:1 that "The Mandate in Palestine is unacceptable to the home due to a direct violation of the promises made to Arabs by the JKM government and due to the fact that it is contrary to the will of the large majority of Palestinians."
In view of the rejection of this position by the home of Commons of the Conservative Party, a memorial was sent to the League of Nations calling for a postponement of the Palestinian mandate. It was signed by 39 Lords and 55 Members of the home of Commons. Its signatories stated that: the implementation of the Balfour Declaration "leads inevitably to the request for force against the arabian populationIt’s okay. ” Balfour wrote: "What does it substance that a fewer stupid lords have pushed specified a position." Weizmann, who recalled those times, wrote in his memoirs that “the elements that we can call reactionary and fascist present (after planet War II).
In turn, the 1922 Zionist Organization memorandum to the League of Nations described its arabian opponents as saying: “They acted unrestrainedly, with the passion of simple and gullible people. Behind them were various dark forces." These writings at the same time show the combination of colonial mentality and post-war predication of all supporters of arabian Palestine for fascism and anti-Semitism. Balfour himself's message of May 1922 was even more arrogant in this context. "I remind you that mandates are a voluntary regulation of sovereignty which is exercised by the winners in the acquired territories. This was imposed by the victorious powers of their own for what they consider to be the interests of mankind. They asked the League of Nations to assist and watch over the general continuation of this policy, but the League is not the author of this policy(...) Now it is clear that those who hope that what they have accepted to call Balfour's declaration, but what is in any case a declaration of policy towards Palestine, those who hope to be subject to fundamental modifications, are wrong. Fears are unjustified and hopes are unjustified. The general lines of this policy are permanent and will stay permanent."
British and Jews
In practice, this meant that the actual government was held in Palestine by the British advanced Commissioner. The first to service was from a conventional judaic household Herbert Samuel, formerly sincerely devoted to Zionism, who, however, tried to keep impartiality on the place and even to limit the influx of judaic settlers in order to preserve social peace. He besides tried to convince all parties to make typical institutions and self-government bodies. The latter, however, met with the boycott of the arabian side, who refused to accept that each time specified bodies would be guaranteed a majority by the combined representation of the British and judaic side.
Samuel wrote of the grounds for this position: “The British government has spoken against this request of the Arabs for otherwise clear and apparent reasons: if a majority of the permanent opposition to certain conditions of the mandate were formed in the womb of the Legislative Council, the Palestinian Government would be in a permanent stalemate because, on the 1 hand, it would be obliged to implement certain conditions of the mandate, on the another hand, specified a hostile majority would argue any effort to do so.” On this occasion, Samuel added that the Palestinians' legislature of Palestinian Arabs was not typical of the full arabian population in Palestine, and force was exerted on those invited to cooperate in the Consultative Council, which forced them to resign from the Council's work.
In another speeches before the League of Nations' Mandate Commission, which the United Kingdom was required to study annually, it presented figures referring to fresh schools and hospitals. He added that the government treats Arabs in matters of religion and morals as if there was no Balfour declaration, that is, according to the principles prevailing in British colonies. This last message was immediately picked up by the arabian side as another argument that the colonial strategy as well as Balfour's declaration is incompatible with the alleged civilization mission, which was to be served by the mandate system. In another writings addressed to the League of Nations, the Arabs stated explicitly that their goal was to end their mandate and “be free in their own country and decide their own affairs.” However, writings, appeals to the League of Nations did not produce results, and judaic settlements intensified. The British and Zionists justified them with economical advantages for all of Palestine and by applying the rules of the free marketplace in the land. Arabs incapable to face up to the modern competition with immense capitals, pointed to the inequality of the parties and the deficiency of their own government that could defend local property, whether through restrictions on abroad purchases or through appropriate fiscal policies.
As a result, there were riots all fewer years until the 1936 uprising, in which respective 1000 Arabs, 400 Jews and 200 British soldiers were killed.. During his time on the British side, about 6,000 judaic volunteers fought. It resulted in the breakdown of the Palestinian movement and the escape of a spiritual and political leader specified as the large Mufti abroad, but besides restrictions on judaic immigration, which in the interwar period amounted to a full of about 300,000 people. Palestine was in specified a situation at the time of the outbreak of planet War II, erstwhile arabian leaders made a terrible choice to bet on the German side.
The British side was throughout the period under discussion, despite the highly sophisticated and multifaceted language structures active in unsolvable contradictions leading to conflict with the Arabs, but besides in the final phase with Zionists. The judaic side led its game at the same time consistently and skillfully pursuing the goal of Weizmann's 1922 statement: "Palestine should become as judaic as English England and American AmericaIt’s okay. ”
Immediately after the end of planet War II, Zionists did not hesitate to arm themselves against the English and usage the supplies of arms from the russian bloc to then reunite successively with Britain in 1956 and yet to this day benefit from the alliance with the fresh American hegemon. On the another hand, arabian leaders can be accused of both deficiency of solidarity in the fast-sharing post-Turkish area and deficiency of realism, which was uncompromising rejection of subsequent, besides appearing in inter-war and immediately after the end of planet War II, of the proposal to make 2 states in Palestine. But it is impossible to disagree with the words of T.E. Lawrence, who wrote in his introduction to his memories:
"The government, by giving concrete promises to independent governments, encouraged the Arabs to fight for us. In this hope they did glorious deeds, but of course alternatively of pride in what we did together, I was constantly and bitterly ashamed. It was apparent from the beginning that if we win this war, our promises would become a dead letter... Sir Henry McMahon's resignation confirmed my suspicions of our fundamental dishonesty.”
And let these words stay another memento for all who want to "make glorious deeds" in the name of the "concrete promises" of His Majesty's government.
Olaf Swolkień
Photo by Lord Balfour surrounded by leaders of the Zionist movement (Palestine 1923). Public domain
The text was based on the author's earlier publication in Historical Studies R. XXXVI, 1993, Z.1 (140) PL ISSN 0025-1429 and the request of papers located in the Jagiellonian Library in Kraków and in the Archive of the League of Nations in Geneva.
Think Poland, No. 45-46 (5-12.11.2023)
